从生态批评角度分析《愤怒葡萄》

　摘要

　约翰斯坦贝克是美国最伟大的作家之一。他创作的《愤怒的葡萄》出版于1939 年，是斯坦贝克的巅峰之作，曾荣获普利策文学奖，是部描写 20 世纪 30年代大萧条时期美国现状的史诗。该书呈现了美国农民背井离乡，颠沛流离的悲惨生活，表达了作者对生态危机的担忧和对人类破坏生态行为的严厉谴责，体现了作者超前的生态思想，寄寓着作者对生态危机和人类生存状态的深刻领悟。本文主要从生态批评的角度解析他的作品《愤怒的葡萄》，探究作家在小说中体现的对全球生态危机的关注，并帮助读者理解斯坦贝克生态思想的理论意义和现实意义。

　本文由引言，正文和结论三个部分组成。主要内容如下：

　论文首先介绍了约翰·斯坦贝克和他的文学生涯，继而综述了国内外学界对《愤怒的葡萄》的评论。本文的研究重点是斯坦贝克生态思想的内容与发展，并从三个方面分析了他的生态思想在《愤怒的葡萄》的运用：生态危机的根源是人类中心主义，人与自然的关系和人与人的关系。论文最后总结了研究的内容和意义并提出了研究的局限和研究过程中出现的困难。通过对以上方面的具体研究，论文旨在更好地理解斯坦贝克先进的生态意识和其小说深刻的主题。

　关键词：愤怒的葡萄，斯坦贝克，生态批评，生态思想

　II

　Abstract

　John Steinbeck is one of the greatest American writers. The Pulitzer Prize winning novel The Grapes of Wrath created by him is regarded as his best work, and also one of the 20 books that have changed the USA. Published in 1939, The Grapes of Wrath is an epic novel about the situation of America during the Great Depression in the 1930s. It shows the drift and wandering life of the migrated poor peasants, expresses the author"s concern of the ecological crisis and bitter accusation of human destructive behaviors to the ecological environment, and articulates the advanced ecological thoughts of Steinbeck. This thesis focuses on the ecocriticism perspective analysis of his novel The Grape of Wrath with the attempt to explore the novelist’s concern for the global ecological crisis and help understand the theoretical and realistic meaning of Steinbeck’s ecological thoughts.

　 This dissertation consists of three parts: introduction, the main body and conclusion. The main contents are as follows:

　The beginning of this thesis is an introduction of John Steinbeck and his literary career, followed by a list of critical reviews on The Grapes of Wrath at home and abroad. Then the focus of the study is put on the contents and development of Steinbeck’s ecological thoughts and the application of his ecological thoughts in The Grapes of Wrath: the root of the ecological crisis—anthropocentrism, the relationship between man and nature, and relationship between man and man. At last, the author draws a conclusion about the entire thesis and points out the limitations of the research. Through the analysis of the above aspects in details, the thesis aims at a better understanding of Steinbeck’s advanced ecological awareness and the deep themes of this novel.

　Key words: The Grapes of Wrath, Steinbeck, eco-criticism, ecological thoughts

　III

　Table of Contents 摘要

　................................................................................................................................................ I Abstract

　..................................................................................................................... II Chapter one Introduction

　.................................................................................... 1 1.1A Brief Introduction to the Author ..................................................................... 1 1.2 A Brief Introduction to the Grapes of Wrath ..................................................... 2 Chapter two Eco-criticism

　................................................................................... 3 2.1 The Definition of Eco-criticism ........................................................................ 3 2.2 The Features of Eco-criticism ........................................................................... 3 Chapter three The Eco-criticism in The Grapes of Wrath

　...................... 4 3.1 The Ecological Crises ....................................................................................... 4 3.1.1 Natural Ecology Crises ........................................................................... 4 3.1.2 Social Ecology Crises ............................................................................. 5 3.1.3 Spiritual Ecology Crises ......................................................................... 6 3.2 Causes of the Crises .......................................................................................... 7 3.2.1 Man’s Evil to the Land ............................................................................ 7 3.2.2 Man’s Abuse to the Land ........................................................................ 8 3.2.2 Man’s Alienation from Land ................................................................... 9 3.3 The Solution to the Ecological Crises ............................................................. 10 3.3.1 Rebuilding Harmony ............................................................................. 10 3.3.2 Mutual Help and Cooperation ............................................................... 10 3.3.3 The Spirit of Universal Love ................................................................ 11 Chapter Four Conclusion

　................................................................................... 12 Acknowledgments

　................................................................................................. 15

　从生态批评的角度分析《愤怒的葡萄》 An Analysis of The Grape of Warth from the Perspective of Eco-criticism 1

　Chapter one Introduction 1.1A Brief Introduction to the Author John Ernest Steinbeck (1902-1968) is considered to be one of the best-known American novelists of the 20th Century and a storywriter, playwright, an essayist and an amateur marine biologist at the same time. He was born in Saunas, California and lived most of his first forty years in the Saunas Valley, where was later the setting for most of his fiction and moved him deeply just like in the opening of East of Eden, "The Salinas Valley, is in Northern California. It is a long narrow swale between two ranges of mountains, and the Saunas River winds and twists up the center until it falls at last into Monterey Bay". 1 So perhaps his western origins more than anything else gave him his “transcendent sense of places". 2 His father was a government official, and his mother a school teacher. Through the influence of his schoolteacher mother, Steinbeck read widely, especially in English classical literature. He supported himself from his youth, working as a farm laborer, a seaman on a cattle-boat, a newspaper reporter, a bricklayer, a chemist"s assistant, a surveyor, and a migratory fruit-picker. These experiences of working-class life were very educational for him because it set the basis of his works, established the characteristic tone of his fiction, and provided firsthand observation of the attitudes, manners and language of the workingman, especially in The Grapes of Wrath. Between 1920 and 1925 he went to Stanford University, but those various jobs kept him from following the regular curriculum and led to his departure without taking a degree in five years. He was always a good student, eager to learn both in and out of school. By 1925 he had read widely in English, American, and European literature; he enjoyed Milton, Browning, Thackeray, George Eliot, Handy, D.H. Lawrence, Jeffers, Flaubert, and Dostoevsky and so on. Meanwhile, he had begun to send manuscripts to magazines. Later, with his father"s support, Steinbeck decided to be a professional writer.、 In 1929, his first novel Cup of Gold, a historical romance, was published which brought him little money. Although The Pastures of Heaven and To a God Unknown were published in 1932 and 1933, none of these made any stir on the literary scene until he produced his fourth novel. In 1935 Tortilla Flat, a humorous, picaresque tale of romance and adventure of the California "paisanos", was published, pleased the reading public, and immediately established Steinbeck as an important American

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　writer. From that year he became increasingly affluent as each successive novel became a bestseller. It was followed by In Dubious Battle (1936), a very articulate "proletarian" story; Of Mice and Men (1937), a story about two migrant workers and their pure daydream for the helpless; and a volume of short stories, The Long Valley (1938). 1.2 A Brief Introduction to the Grapes of Wrath His most famous work is The Grapes of Wrath (1939), which tells the specific story of the survival of Joad family desperately searching for work during the Great Depression. During the early 1930s, a severe drought led to massive agricultural failure in parts of the southern Great Plains, particularly throughout western Oklahoma and the Texas panhandle. In the absence of rain, crops withered and died; the topsoil, no longer anchored by growing roots, was picked up by the winds and carried in billowing clouds across the region. Huge dust storms blew across the area, at times blocking out the sun and even suffocating those unlucky enough to be caught unprepared. The afflicted region became known as the "Dust Bowl”. By the mid-1930s, the drought had crippled countless farm families, and America had fallen into the Great Depression. Unable to pay their mortgages or invest in the kinds of industrial equipment now necessitated by commercial competition, many Dust Bowl farmers were forced to leave their land. Without any real employment prospects, thousands of families nonetheless traveled to California in hopes of finding new means of survival. Joad family was one of thousands of families, impoverished victims of the "Dust Bowl" drought in Oklahoma, set out in an old automobile they bought for all their family property for California, in which believe they could seek their "promised land". Grampa Joad, a feisty old man who complains bitterly that he does not want to leave his land, dies on the road shortly after the family"s departure. Later, Granma cannot stand bumping during the hard journey and died. The remaining family members move from one squalid camp to the next, looking in vain for work, struggling to find food, and trying desperately to hold their family together. Noah, the oldest of the Joad children, soon abandons the family, as does Connie, a young dreamer who is married to Tom"s pregnant sister, Rose of Sharon. The Joads meet with much hostility in California. The locals are fearful and angry at the flood of newcomers, whom they derisively label "Okies". Work is almost impossible to find or pays such a meager wage that a family"s full day" work cannot buy a decent meal. In one conflict, Jim Casy, an ex-preacher and a determined organizer of migrant workers,

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　knocked the sheriff unconscious and is arrested. After being released from jail, Casy has begun organizing workers and has effect on Tom Joad, who becomes a fierce protector of family. When the police kill Casy in Tom"s presence, Tom retaliates and kills a police officer. Tom goes into hiding, while the family moves into a boxcar on a cotton farm. Fearing for his safety, Ma Joad finds Tom and sends him away. Tom heads off to fulfill Jim"s task of organizing the migrant workers. Rose of Sharon, Tom"s sister, gives birth to a stillborn child, and Ma, desperate to get her family to safety from the floods, leads them to a dry barn not far away. Here, they find a man who is slowly starving to death. Realizing that Rose of Sharon is now producing milk, Ma sends the others outside, so that her daughter can nurse the dying man. Chapter two Eco-criticism

　2.1 The Definition of Eco-criticism

　As a means of literary and cultural criticism, ecocriticism is one of the latest literary critical approaches in western literary circles. The concept of ecological literature was proposed in the 1970s. In 1972, Joseph W. Meeke studied ecocriticism on biological topics in literature. He proposed ecological concept in his literary work The Comedy of Survival: Studies in Literary Ecology. In 1978, the term ecocriticism was first used in William Rueckert"s Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecocriticism, and then some critics proposed eco-poetics, environmental literarycriticism, green studies and other terms. Ecocriticism drew a little attention and was studied by only a few scholars during the 1980s. As one of the main American advocates and initiators of ecocriticism, Chery ll Glotfelty remarks, "Simply defined, ecocriticism is the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment... Ecocriticism takes the earth-centered approach to literary studies..." American scholars Lauren Staub and Lawrence Buell deem that ecocriticism is usually carried out under the spirit of practice in an environment. These ecological critics were not only engaged in academic activities, but also deeply concerned about the present and potential environmental crisis and involved in a variety of environmental reforming movements. They desperately needed a theory to support their literary creation for reflecting ecological environment problems. Therefore, the theory of ecocriticism came into being. 2.2 The Features of Eco-criticism

　Ecocriticism was generated by two powers:

　the pressure of reality from the

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　ecological crisis and the pressure from human inner needs. As a theory of literary criticism, it originated in America in the 20th century and was developed mainly by western scholars in the study of literature and environment in Europe and America particularly in the mid 1990s.

　American ecocriticism went through three stages. In the first stage, it is the study of nature and environment in literature. Ecological critics regarded the works describing nature as an old model. In these works the nature was portrayed as idyllic Eden like a paradise or a virginal place. It was also described as a swamp or ruthless wilderness. The second stage focused on promoting the awareness by the long-neglected nature literature. It also paid attention to the studies and researches of the history, development, achievement, style, and genre of American literature. The nature-oriented works were all kinds of non-fiction writings describing nature. From the late 18th to early 19th century, more than 20literary works were published in the United States about the depiction of nature. As a literary genre, nature writing originated from England writer Gilbert Wright"s The Sale of Natural History Boner. The theoretical system of ecocriticism was created and has already achieved a lot of success like putting forward environmental ethics or environmental philosophy on morality which is still advanced today. Ecocriticism explores the relationship between man and natural environment. It criticizes not only human-centered society but also various kinds of environmental oppression. The primary cause for the contemporary ecological disaster is anthropocentrism. Ecocriticism is considered as a kind of means of fighting against anthropocentrism, deconstructing the values and lifestyles of anthropocentrism, while constructing natural ecological values and green sustainable lifestyles. When rationality loses its dominated place, diversified cognition and emotion show themselves quickly. Nature should return to its original state with the help of human beings" restoration of their recognition from the consideration of the whole ecological interest.

　Chapter three The Eco-criticism in The Grapes of Wrath

　 3.1 The Ecological Crises 3.1.1 Natural Ecology Crises In the novel The Grapes of Wrath, the author John Steinbeck conveys the connection people have with their land, without which they feel they can neither

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　survive mentally nor physically. Initially, back in Oklahoma, each family feels a strong attachment to the land because the ancestors of these farmers fought and cleared the Indians out of the land, made it suitable for farming, and worked year after year in the fields so that each generation would be able to live on these farms. Passing down the land to successive generations, human beings can become proprietary about their land. They believe that the land belongs to them, and they belong to it.

　During the Dust Bowl, hundreds of thousands of southerners faced many hardships. It was an ecological and human. Disaster in the Southwestern Great Plains regions of the United States happened in the 1930s. The areas affected included Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, and Colorado. Misuse of land and years of sustained drought caused this catastrophe. Millions of acres of farmland became useless. The heavy rain in California at the end of this novel lasted for three days, which deepened the farmers" misery that the Great Depression had brought. The migrant families wondered how long the rain would lust. The rain damaged cars and penetrated tents. During the rain storms some peoplewent to relief offices, but there were rules: one had to live in California for a year before he could receive any relief. The greatest terror arrived when no work was available for three months. Hungry men crowded the alleys to beg for bread; a number of people died. Anger festered, causing sheriffs to swear in new deputies. There would be no work and no food. The migrant workers must face yet another hardship, this one perhaps the worst-off all. With the coming of the rains was the end of the harvest season. The migrant workers faced starvation, yet they could not receive any government relief. For Steinbeck, the treatment of these workers was not only inhumane, but below even the treatment of livestock; he made the point that no farm owner would leave his horse to starve when it was not used. However, the farm owners were just doing that for the migrant labor force. And the rain (ironically in the beginning, the lack of rain was a cause of the problem) now was keeping them from working. No work for three months. The migrants are faced with hunger and sickness. 3.1.2 Social Ecology Crises Once in California, the Joads were floored by its beauty and its rich, lush land. There were orchards and fields everywhere, and the soil was rich and moist. However, life was dangerous and it was harrowing in the beautiful state. Many migrant families continued to move from place to place, setting up campgrounds called Hooverville’s (named after President Herbert Hoover) on the outskirts of towns.

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　The Joads set up camp at one such Hooverville, but it was not that fun. In fact, it was downright un-fun. The Hooverville was full of starving people who had little left and were fighting to feed their children. Their tents were tattered, they lived in makeshift shacks, and they were unkempt. Weed patch, by contrast, was a government camp with beautiftil restrooms, running water, hot showers, self-elected committees, dances, string bands, and occupants who look out for one another. The Joads lived for a time in an abandoned boxcar near Tulare, CA. They were one of the first families to discover the boxcar, and, soon after, many other families flooded the land and camp around the boxcars. The newcomer’s were herded into slum-like migrant camps, given low wages for back-breaking work and treated like criminals. Much of this was an effort by local farmers to take advantage of a cheap labor pool and to prevent a labor organizing that would raise wages. Much of it was the result of fear on the part of Californians who were faced with a huge influx of ragged families. The people were migrants now. People in the west were afraid of the migrants. They worried about their own safety and competition for jobs.

　 In the 1920s, after World I, alerting signals were apparent that a great depression was coming. Farmers were not doing well because they were producing more crops and farm products than could be sold at high prices. Therefore, they made a very small profit. "This insufficient profit wouldn"t allow the farmers to purchase new machinery and because they couldn"t produce goods quickly enough”. Also the new agricultural technology destroyed the rich fanning land in the Great Plain sand the man-made desperation pushed the residents into migrating to California for another chance in. life. The government didn"t realize how the new technology destroyedthe soil. New farming devices like reapers and tractors destroyed the soil as the farmers overused them. The tractors loosened up the soil and the windstorms blew the soil away easily. From this view, it is easy to see the push factor that made the Okies migrate to the west. There is nothing but the house that the Okies could keep in the Great Plains. The storms and the tractors dramatically destroyed their farmland and if they didn"t move, the only option to their life was starving to death.

　 3.1.3 Spiritual Ecology Crises Unlimited expansion of desires inevitably leads not only to ecological disasters, but also to the alienation of people. Man becomes the slave of material which not merely brings us more and more high-grade material comforts but the control of corrosion of the heart, and our personality. It makes people discard those most

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　important universal ethical norms, at the very least, like the trust in each other, and basic fairness and justice. In this era when ecological crisis keeps intensifying, we can no longer continue to rely on inciting people to stimulate the desire of material production and material consumption; neither can we continue to rely on the adherence to the traditional theory of desire and motivation to promote economic growth. Human should learn "the first western green thinker and writer" Rousseau"s advice: "limit your desires according to your condition", "constraint in your heart your greed to permit the scope of the condition". Only by taking strict control the desires of people within the capacity of the supply, digestion and the regeneration of the natural environment can human beings exist for long. Otherwise, according to the desire of people nowadays to satisfy the intensity and speed, the environmental capacity has reached its limit to support economic development: as National Environmental Protection Bureau Deputy Director Pan Yue said, our faces would "no longer be a problem of the benefit of future generations, but the question of whether our own generation can be weathered".

　3.2 Causes of the Crises 3.2.1 Man’s Evil to the Land

　Anthropocentrism insists that human beings possess much more intrinsic value than non-human world. Humans are the sole of the world, the crown of creation, and the source of all values. Non-human world to humans is merely in economic-instrumental terms. For the goal to maximize profits, humans ignore and breach the rules of nature. The tenants over-destroyed vegetation for land reclamation, over-planted cotton, just for short-term gains. Land was merely a means of acquiring property. The utilitarian attitude to the land caused ecological crises in the end. Just as Steinbeck described in America and Americans, the farmers, "they cut and burned the forest to make room for crops; they abandoned their knowledge of kindness to the land in order to maintain its usefulness. When they had cropped out a piece they moved on, raping like invaders. The topsoil, held by roots and freshened by leaf-fall, was left helpless to the spring freshets, stripped and eroded with the naked bones of clay and rock exposed" (Hudspeth 306). Meanwhile, as the representative of technology, tractors, the steel monsters, evicted thousands of tenants form their home. The men who desert nature will be deserted by nature in the end. The starving, impoverished tenants could not avoid having to atone for what they had done. At the

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　same time, ecological crises lead to spiritual crises, distorted relationship took place of harmony between one man and another man. The serious contradictions between rich and poor, farm-owners and homeless tenants, workers and policemen, actually were caused by ecological crises. People become hypocritical, selfish, cold and indifferent.

　Conversely, the spiritual crises make the ecological crises worse. For Steinbeck, through describing the environmental and spiritual crises, he awakens humans" ecological consciousness, calls on people to establish the harmony with nature and other species or all living things. The worsening environment is not because of how ecosystems function but rather because of how our ethical systems function. (Worst 27).Ecocritics answer that anthropocentrism is the main ideological root cause for the ecological crisis. Anthropocentrism is a kind of belief and practice, beneficial to humans than other biological systems; it is that human beings have the right to make the maximum use of the natural world around; humans have the more exceptional value than other animal and the nature of. Anthropocentrism connives at the notion of the relentless plundering of nature by human beings at their will and causes a lot of ecological crises in human history.

　 3.2.2 Man’s Abuse to the Land Dust Bowl residents lashed out at the weather, believing that it caused their woes .They complained that the poor rain had failed them. Such an argument is analogous to blaming the mint for not making people enough money. Drought does not cause the Dust Bowl--a more accurate description of the region"s troubles should instead focus on the fact that the local farmers have continued planting and harvesting cash crops. The Dust Bowl"s systematic ecological catastrophe would be both avoidable and remediable if men had not over-exploited the land. When the Dust Bowl farmers migrated to the land of milk and honey, they found the cycle repeated in the same way, for in the lush valleys, "Never seen any cotton like this here California cotton. Spoil the land" pretty soon.

　Like a fells wants to buy some cotton land"--Don"t buy her, rent her. Then when she’s cottoned on the down，move some place new"(Steinbeck 480). All of these unreasonable and desperate actions were spurred by anthropocentrism.

　 The Joad family suffered, because they have also lost the awareness that the earth is both sacred and alive, Tom Joad said, "Every year, Every year I can remember, we had a good crop coming", an ‘it never came, Grampa says she was good the first five

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　plowing’s, while the wild grass was still in her"(Steinbeck 32).When Grampa Joad cleared the land and began to plow, they broke the grass sod of the Great Plains; they started a process of ever-increasing production that soon robbed the earth of its ability to produce. Just as Mulley said “I knew these lands aren’t much good. Never was much good crept for graze". Never should a broke her up. And now she"s cottoned damn near to death"(Steinbeck55). Growing the same crops year after year had destroyed the ability of the earth to nurture those who treated her this way. The tenants participated in the destruction of the land mining the land of nutrients and leaving it to die. Without sod or other vegetation to hold the topsoil in place, the land becomes extremely vulnerable to ecological disturbance. 3.2.2 Man’s Alienation from Land

　 Steinbeck demonstrates that man"s alienation from the land is totally unavoidable product in the process of scientific and technological development. However, he does not object to science and technology blindly; he pays tribute the beautiful

　autumn in California: "The whole California quickens with production, and the finite grows quickly, and the limbs bend gradually under the fruit so that little crutches must be placed under them to support the weight"(Stein Beck 408). And he attributes the fruitfulness to "men of understanding and knowledge and skill" (Steinbeck 408). So, in Steinbeck"s eyes, science and technology are a double-edged sword,

　and his criticizing the industrial science and technology is not to wholly deny them, but to emphasize the existing fatal deficiencies of them and to watch out for their negative effects.

　In other words,

　science and technology themselves are neutral，since they hold the possibility of both good and devil .The future of human beings depends on our values and attitude to applying them.

　Just as Wang Nuo pointed out, human beings should respect and follow natural laws; they should not interfere with or distort natural process when developing science and technology (Wang Nuo, 2003:184--85). Moreover, the development of science and technology must be under supervision; they should not be used to exploit nature. Our present science and technology are so tinctured with anthropocentric arrogance that no solution for environmental crisis and alienations between nature and man can be expected until we recognize the value of nature and apply an ecological ethical attitude towards nature.

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　3.3 The Solution to the Ecological Crises 3.3.1 Rebuilding Harmony In the view of Hans Jonas, traditional ethics is a sort of anthropocentrism, which has a negative impact on civilization of the Technological Age.

　Based on the philosophical critique and ethical assessment of science and technology, they try to reconstruct a new theory which is called the ethics of responsibility.

　Traditional ethics does not know what to do while facing technology of great power; but when proposing to overcome such face-to-face limitations, it produces a sort of "far-away" ethics. Beyond firstly embodied in the inter-generational relationship, the offspring is also embodied the respect and responsibility to future human beings. At the same age, we can change the personal responsibility to the surroundings into to society and nature; it"s more helpful to understand the social value, and promote social harmony. Jonas" responsibility ethics is the kind of ethics of human behavioral consequences, and moreover, to a larger extent, it"s about the unpredictable consequences of responsibility ethics. The core concern is what we are to be responsible for and what the standard measure of our action consequences is. Jonas"s answer is that all our actions are responsible for the future of human beings and nature. From the conventional point of view, the future seems to be a concept of the illusory, compared with the ethics of anthropocentrism, and responsibility ethics seems to be less certain.

　But in fact, responsibility ethics requires that everyone, at every moment, should be responsible for the entire nature and his own self. Compared to traditional ethics, it seems to possess a more extensive and profound significance. From Jonas"s Ethics of Responsibility, we know that we must be responsible for nature and our future descendants, or we would be punished by nature and ourselves. The Great Depression in The Grapes of Wrath is the result of our failure to shoulder the responsibility for the nature. In modern society, for sustainable development, we must rebuild the harmony between man and nature, and between man and man. 3.3.2 Mutual Help and Cooperation In The Grapes of Wrath, Ma Joad said, "If you in trouble or hurt or need, go to poor people. They"re the only ones that"ll help, the only ones" (Steinbeck 335). The rich were not only indifferent to the poor but they also exploited them. The poor could only get help and sympathy from poor people. It is the true word to show the friendliness and trust between poor people. There are many examples of this book.

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　The first example is in36 the 15th chapter at the bus station, the boss and the workers sold the bread and some other food to the family cheaper than before. Then, a big truck driver gave the tip to the workers. Neither the truck driver nor...

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